Chapter+One+-+Introduction+to+Educational+Research

=Chapter One: Introduction to Educational Research =

The Purpose of Research
The purpose of this chapter is to present background information regarding the nature of educational research. This chapter should address the purpose and nature of research, types of research that can be conducted, the process of developing a workable research topic and research question (i.e., issues of feasibility, significance, etc.). In addition, concerns related to the ethics of research and a basic discussion of the "language" of research should be presented. Finally, a summary of the importance of research should conclude this chapter. You should feel free to refer to the course text and readings (with appropriate citation), the PowerPoint's and your own experience in thinking about research and the research topic. This paragraph is intended as a means of providing "direction" for the chapter - do not edit. Detailed information regarding the content to be added can be found on the main page of the wiki space or in the guidelines on the course homepage.

1. Introduction to Research
Why do we study educational research? It is not exactly the most prolific of areas when thinking about education. However, educational research can provide a means by which to increase ones critical thinking skills. It allows one to evaluate various arguments than simply using what is written as fact. Through evaluation, the highest level of Blooms, one can begin to work through all of the information that is presented in the media that may or may not be researched based. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 5) Actually, there's a higher form of Bloom's, the "creating" level, as cited on http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm. This creating level serves to remind us that the untimate purpose of research it to create solutions or understandings here-to-fore undiscovered or to support research that can lead to the creation of solutions and greater understandings.

The phrase “research based” is cited in advertisements for many textbooks and educational technology programs because it helps sell the products to schools, teachers, and parents. Before trusting that phrase it is important to ask, “What research?” “How was it designed and implemented?” “How were participants selected and how was data gathered?” “What were the results of the study?” and “Was the study replicated?” It is also critical to ask, "What purpose the design of the research targeted." For example current research into the need for formative assessment in the classroom has led testing companies to develop "off the shelf" formative assessment packages to sell to schools that have the potential to bring in more than half a billion dollars to these firms (__ http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2008/09/17/04formative_ep.h28.html __ September 16, 2008). .According to Rick Stiggins, one of the main proponents of formative assessment, "Formative assessment isn't something you buy-- it's something you practice," [|(http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2008/09/17/04formative_ep.h28.html] September 16, 2008). So, the purpose of the research into formative assessment was to assess for learning and how the teacher can use the results of the assessment to inform teaching that particular group of students, at that time, on that objective, not to lead to new marketing revenues for testing companies. Without looking into the details of the research, buyers may purchase products that have not been shown to work effectively for their population group. Studying research can help us make informed decisions when purchasing educational materials and can help us choose the appropriate teaching strategies for our students. The study of educational research can also help us learn how to analyze and evaluate what is going on in our own classrooms so that we can improve teaching and learning.  Research also helps us find new ideas on how to implement instructional strategies and differentiate instruction in order to reach all students that are being served (our intended audience). Not all educational products that are purchased by the district or school campuses may be the right thing for every student. Research helps us (educators-in this case) make informative and conscious decisions to use best practices depending on the formative and summative evaluation conducted in our classrooms.

1.1 Research Types
Educational research can be conducted in different ways. Each type takes into consideration a particular audience and a specific purpose. Some of the general types of educational research are: basic research, applied research, evaluation research, action research and orientational research. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 10) Basic and applied research lay at different ends of the research spectrum. Both are conducted primarily by scholars and its results can be found in “academic and professional research journals” (Johnson & Christensen, p. 10) Basic research work seeks to find critical knowledge or understanding of “…basic human and other natural processes” (Johnson & Christensen, p. 10) and to develop theories about the rudiments of these processes. Basic research sets the groundwork for the applied science that follows. Applied research looks to give answers to every-day problems of the modern world. Real-world problems motivate researchers to investigate and provide solutions to alleviate these needs, thus generating “…interventions and programs aimed at improving societal conditions.” (Johnson & Christensen, p. 11)

Action research is mainly focused on problems within schools and communities. Practioners in local settings design and conduct the research studies. These studies are conducted more practically than Basic and Applied research. Action research is conducted by teachers, administrators, and other educational professionals. Basic and Applied research are conducted primarily for educational publication. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 12)

Action research is focused on local practioners' solving local problems. Teachers should strive to be action researchers in their classrooms. Some examples of action research are a school administrator studying the lack of parental involvement at their school or a teacher studying a problem child in their classroom. Action research is never-ending. An action researcher is someone with a positive attitude towards research and someone willing to try new practices and observe the results. (Johnson & Christensen p.12) Action research is never-ending because the researchers are constantly learning new practices, trying them in the classroom, and observing their results. Whatever information the action researcher learned and processed by studying up-to-date information, putting it into practice, and observing the conducted research, now becomes a beginning for the action researcher's next problem solving effort. Action research is not complete when an action plan is created and implemented. It still must be evaluated and necessary changes made based on the results.

1.2 Ways of Knowing
If we think about how we come to know something it stems mainly from the world around us. Most of our beliefs and morals come from those who surround us as young eager minds. Our parents, relatives, siblings, friends, and community leaders all play a role in helping us to know what we know. Often times books and periodicals that we grew up with also have an influence on what we know. These "funds of knowledge" that we gain from our day-to-day interactions help to shape our experiences, which experts we will consider, and how we go about justifing our reasoning. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 13-14)

How do we know when we know something? Throughout history, thinkers have tried to establish ways that we can be sure of our knowledge. There are three main sources of knowledge – experience, expert opinion, and reasoning. All sources are useful but none are without limitations. (Johnson & Christensen, pp. 13-15)

Does this also fall in what we call “gut feeling”? Sometimes we know something but because we have not yet proven it scientifically our credibility is not taken seriously. Even though evidence is clear that students have shown improvement and growth. For example, a student doing well on a reading or math standardize test that is above his/her grade level. How much more evidence can we provide? How can we document “gut feeling” research? Our experiences can lead to incorrect ideas because what we experience in our own lives may not be true under all conditions. Over time we may grow to believe our ideas are correct and forget to question them because we have held onto them for so long. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 14) Expert opinion can also be disputable. Experts do not always agree with each other. Experts can be wrong. Also, sometimes people who are experts in one area are quoted in another area in which they have no expertise. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 14) Reasoning can also be problematic. If we are using deductive reasoning, where we come to logical conclusions based on premises, we can be wrong if our premises are incorrect or our logic is not valid. If we are using inductive reasoning, where we experience things in a specific setting and then generalize it to be true in all settings, we can wrong. The more data we have that corroborates a finding, the more certain we can be of it. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 15) However, we can never be 100 percent sure of what we know. That is why continuous data collection, reflection, and discourse among stakeholders are necessary for making optimum decisions for students and teachers. Because of the nature of knowledge and the importance of decisions based on that knowledge, teachers should consider conducting classroom research and sharing their findings to add to the knowledge base for all teachers.

In my own research I intend to investigate how we can help students to be more successful in school by teaching them strategies for assessing their own knowledge. In this way, I hope to add to the knowledge base that includes how we can create more confident learners and more efficient study practices in students at an early level (3rd grade).  Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). //Educational Research - Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches//. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

There are a variety of approaches researchers take in science; however the //scientific method// is most commonly used. The key features found in most scientific research methods are: 1.  making empirical observations 2.  generating and testing hypotheses 3.  generating or constructing and testing or justifying theories 4.  attempting to predict and influence the world to make it a better place to live (Johnson and Christensen, p. 18). Two major scientific methods are: Even though researchers have two major scientific methods to choose from at time both methods are used at the same time or by different kinds of researchers. On one hand we have quantitative researchers which usually use the "top-down approach" which consist of theory, hypothesis, data, and conclusion which is the norm of the scientific method. While the qualitative researchers usually use the "bottom-up approach" which consist of observations, data, descriptions, and sometimes theory is generated from the observations.
 * Exploratory Method** //(Inductive Method//): which is a “bottom-up approach.” In this method the researcher begins with making an observation, and then a researcher looks for patterns in what they observed. Lastly, after studying the observations the researcher makes a tentative generalization or conclusion about the pattern observed. (Johnson and Christensen, p. 19).
 * Confirmatory Method** (//Deductive Method//): which is a “top-down approach.” In this method a researcher first makes a hypothesis which they base on scientific research that is already available, then the researcher collects data that will test the hypothesis (observation, experiment or experience). Lastly, the researcher decides whether to tentatively accept or reject the hypothesis based on the data. (Johnson and Christensen, p. 19).

2.1 Quantitative versus Qualitative
While both quantitative and qualitative research follow precise protocols, the two researches are conducted differently, reported differently, and address different purposes of research. The quantitative researcher starts at the top with the hypotheses and collects data that either support or disclaim the hypothesis while the qualitative researcher starts at the bottom by collecting data in the field to find patterns and themes to generate hypotheses. (Johnson and Christensen, pp. 34-35).

The quantitative researcher views human behavior as predictable and measurable while the qualitative researcher sees human behavior as dynamic, contextual, and personal. The quantitative researcher is interested in supporting general laws and collects data as evidence to describe, explain and predict based on the laws related to specific hypotheses under study. The qualitative researcher’s approach is broad like that of an explorer who digs deeply into phenomena to discover, construct and describe what was encountered from the local or particular groups of people (Johnson and Christensen, pp. 34-36).

In testing specific laws and hypotheses, the quantitative researcher uses lab-like conditions to study the subjects in controlled conditions attempting to isolate the cause and effect while eliminating unknown or unpredictable variables. The qualitative researcher’s work is done in the natural setting of the subject/s under study so that the context is of great importance. The qualitative researcher is trying to explain a phenomenon that little is know about coming up with new hypotheses or theories. Thus the qualitative researcher examines multiple factors operating simultaneously in a natural and dynamic setting (Johnson and Christensen, pp. 34-36).

For the quantitative researcher data collected is objective and variables can be identified, quantified, justified and supported by other researchers. The data collected by qualitative researchers is reported as words, images, and categories identified by the researcher. Thus qualitative research data is subjective and both personally and socially interpreted. Quantitative research data is collected so that it can be measured using precise structured and accepted data collection instruments. Qualitative data on the other hand consists of interviews, observations, field notes, and open ended questions. The qualitative researcher is actually the primary data-collection instrument. Thus the quality of the data is directly correlated to the quality of the researcher's data collection methods, perspective, and interpretations. Precision of language is a must for the qualitative researcher (Johnson and Christensen, pp. 34-37).

The data analysis of quantitative research is based on statistical relationships and reported as generalized statistics (numbers). On the other hand, qualitative research attempts to identify patterns, themes, and inclusive and overarching features reporting findings of a particularistic nature represented from insider viewpoints and multiple perspectives. The final report of qualitative research is in narrative form using context to describe the findings and direct quotations of research subjects as evidence of the conclusions reached (Johnson and Christensen 33-38).

As an English Language Arts Teacher, I find myself attracted to the methods of the qualitative researcher where the research is in the "story" that unfolds before the eyes of the trained researcher and the precision of words that determines the quality of the research. However, the mathematical precision of the quantitative researcher also attracts me as the evidence collected speaks for itself. I would think it would be easier to replicate the findings of the quantatative researcher.

When analyzing a situation and its possible causes or solutions, it is often beneficial for the researcher to use multiple perspectives whenever possible. This can be done by using both the quantitative and qualitative research methods. A survey that collects qualitative data can be done concurrently or sequentially to the research that collects quantitative data. The purpose of using mixed methods is that the researcher is then allowed to see a bigger picture of not only what the causes or results are but may also probe into what extending factors and influences surrounding the issue may be. Thus, the researcher is able to see both the objective (quantitative) and subjective (qualitative) views with regards to their study. While some research topics may lend themselves more easily to one type of research or another, it is generally accepted that using a mixed methods analysis when possible can lend itself to superior results over using one sole type of research.

Wouldn’t it make sense to have Mix Research in order to balance our study and target a wide audience? When we use the fundamental principle of mixed research, the quality of the research improves because it contains different strengths and different weaknesses that the reader can then observe, study, and compare. (Johnson & Christensen, p. 51) The use of mixed research can be reviewed in conjunction with other Quantitative and Qualitative Research and thus provide the reader with a wide range of studies in order to make informative decision. Seeing both sides will provide insight on what type of research will be beneficial for the reader’s own study.

Constructs are the actual "things" we study in an experiment. They often are abstract and immeasurable. It is assumed they exist, but their meanings are frequently hard to clearly define. Intelligence, stress, and lower-socioeconomic students are often issues of importance in educational research, but such constructs have multiple characteristics or concepts. A researcher must be clear and concise when identifying the constructs being investigated. The better the explanation of the meaning of a construct, the more valid the construct will be. To help in the accuracy of communicating constructs of an experiment, researchers can specify a set of steps to follow. These operational definitions help explain how a particular construct is going to be measured. Most often, a construct cannot be measured directly, so when trying to accurately measure a construct, it is best to measure it several different ways. For example, intelligence could be measured by any number of IQ tests, exploring information processing that occurs during learning, or studying an individual's spatial, musical, or physical intelligences.

3.2 Variables
In any experiment or research, variables are present and knowing which will stay constant or change is a fact for everything. Varibales come in different forms in conducting research such as age, gender, or even intelligence. One way on looking at varibles would be taking notice of the category the varible will fall under, such as gender. Gender would have two constants or category male or female when conducting the research. To further receive understanding of a variable and constant, you can imagine a box of crayons being the variable and the color red would be the constant.

Variables also come in different types such as quantitative variable and categorical variable. But the best part is that for quantitative varible all you need is to think numbers such as age, year of birthdays, or even income as long as the variable has a number then it will be considered quanitative variable. While categorical variable can be seen as category or type of kind. That would refer to the previous example of gender male or female would be the categories or kinds of variable.

Besides those variable spoken of in previous paragraphs, we still have independent variable, dependent variable, and cause-and-effect relationship. Independent variable and dependent variable go hand in hand because the independent variable causes a change in another variable while the dependent variable is influenced by one or more independent variables. While the cause-and-effect relationship cause a change or affects one variable and another variable.

The hypothesis explains the researcher's proposed relationship between the variables under investigation (Johnson and Christensen, p. 80). For example, a researcher could wonder what effect extracurricular activities has on student achievement and believe that, in fact, such activities tend to promote positive study habits that improve academics, social skills, and cooperation. The hypothesis is a necessary component to guide research and the overall investigation. Without a hypothesis that is testable, the researcher would not be able to compare data that disproves or supports the initial hypothesis (Johnson and Christensen, p. 81). Used most often in quantitative research studies, the hypothesis allows researchers to compare variables and infer possible relationships between those variables.

4. Research Ethics
Research Ethics is an important factor in research. These ethics guide and assist researchers in ethical studies. Three areas of ethical issues for social and behavioral scientistis have been looked such as the relationship between society and science, professional issues and the treatment of participants.

Relationship Between Society and Science The ethical problem involved in relationship between society and science is that social concerns and cultural values usually direct the course of research. Society tends to direct the course for research ideas and the topics that are considered important enough to conducted research on. Society thinks that education is important enough to research it so society encourages this kind of research.

Professional Issues The ethical problem for professional issues is research misconduct which refers to falsifing research results or even just reviewing research. Because of the pressure to publish or to obtain grants at times scientist might find it tempting to cheat or lie about a research they are investigating or doing themselves. That is why research misconduct is looked at very closely and they have even come up with strategies to prevent misconduct of that nature.

Treatment of Research Participants The ethical problem reagrding treatment of research participants is mostly informing participants, safety of participants, and ethical treatment of participants. Research at times was done without informing the participants of the purpose or the risks involved of the research. Which resulted in harm of the participants. Conducting research with humans has to be taken very seriously because of the harm that can be done towards them not just physical but mentally as well. Being careful and cautious with human participants during reaserch is a must for all scientist.

5. Selecting a Research Topic
When you identify a research idea, this does not mean this will be the total focus of your study. This is due to the fact that your research idea may have already been investigated by others. For example, you may believe that students learn better after they have eaten a good breakfast in the morning. This is a topic which others have researched and written many papers and articles about. You have instead selected a research topic, a broad subject that you want to investigate. Identifying a research topic is just the beginnng of the process of narrowing down the development of your research idea. After selecting your topic, the next step is to identify the research problem or the educational issue in the topic area. You then identify the purpose of the research and from there create your research question. The last step is to develop your hypotheses or best guess of the relation that exists among your variables.